Repoblamiento de Krakatoa

1. K. W. Dammerman. 1948. The Fauna of Krakatau, 1883–1933. (Verhandelingen der Koninklijke Nederlandsche Akademie van Wetenschappen, Afd. Natuurkunde, Sectie 2, Deel 14.) Pp. xii + 594 + 11 plates. (Amsterdam: N. V. Noord-Hollandsche Uitgevers Mij., 1948.)
   Book review: Nature 162 pp 552–553 (1948)
   Abstract
   Prior to 1883 there existed in the Sunda Straits between Sumatra and Java three small islands, the largest of which, Krakatau, was composed of three active volcanoes, Perboewatan, Danan and Rakata. From May 20 until August 28, 1883, a series of volcanic eruptions succeeded one another until with a final and stupendous explosion the two volcanoes, Danan (400 m.) and Perboewatan, disappeared entirely, and Rakata (800 m.) was split right through the middle, one half of it together with the other two volcanoes sinking into the depths of the ocean, while a cavity 270 m. deep was made in the sea-bed. The main island was originally 9 km. long by 5 km. in breadth with a surface area of 33 sq. km., of which 22 sq. km. sank beneath the sea. Thirty-six thousand people in Java and Sumatra were killed by the resulting sea wave.
2. R. Zann, M. V. Walker, A. S. Adhikerana, G. Davison, E. Male, Darjono. 1990. The Birds of the Krakatau Islands (Indonesia) 1984-86. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B 328:29–54
   Fifty-five species of birds were recorded from the four islands of the Krakatau archipelago during three expeditions that took place in 1984, 1985 and 1986, just over a century after the destructive eruption of 1883. Thirty-six of these species were non-migrant land birds, the remainder seabirds, shorebirds or migrants. Fourteen species were recorded for the first time in this decade, eight of which are resident land birds. There were many new records for individual islands, especially for Panjang, an island ignored by previous expeditions; Anak Krakatau supported 24 species of resident land birds on some 12-14 ha of vegetation. The avifauna of the Krakataus is compared and contrasted with that of two other islands in the Sunda Strait, Sebesi and Panaitan.
3. P. Rawlinson, R. Zann, S. Balen, I. Thornton. 1992. Colonization of the Krakatau islands by vertebrates. GeoJournal volume 28, pp 225–231
   Human-assisted dispersal is seen to be of increasing importance with the increasing number of tourist visits and this may prove to be significant in determining the nature and rate of future colonization by vertebrates.
   Abstract
   80 species of non-marine, non-migrant vertebrates, excluding also shore birds, have been recorded from the Krakatau archipelago since the explosive eruption of 1883.73 of these are believed to have established breeding populations and successfully colonized the islands (47 resident land birds species, 13 bats, 11 reptiles and 2 rats). A large proportion of these colonizers consists of species with wide distributions, broad ecological tolerances and/or association with urban or rural situations. 11 of the 73 colonizing species (8 resident land birds, 2 reptiles and a bat) have become extinct on the islands. No amphibian species has yet been recorded and successful non-volant mammal colonists consist only of rats. Species turnover is considered to be largely associated with successional change of habitat. Progressive loss of coastal habitat through marine erosion and of open inland habitats through forest formation and canopy closure has been important and volcanic activity is indicated in the case of one or two extinctions. Active flight has been the predominant dispersal method (63 of the recorded species, 79%, are birds or bats). Of the 17 recorded non-volant vertebrates, 6 species are assessed as having dispersed by swimming, 4 by means of natural rafts and 7 most likely through human agency (on boats). Human-assisted dispersal is seen to be of increasing importance with the increasing number of tourist visits and this may prove to be significant in determining the nature and rate of future colonization by vertebrates.
4. M. Bush, R. Whittaker, T. Partomihardjo. 1995. Colonization and succession on Krakatau - an analysis of the guild of vining plants. Biotropica 27:3 pp. 355-372
   Changes in vine communities on the Krakatau Islands, Indonesia, during the last 111 years provide an insight into colonizational patterns in a regenerating tropical rain forest.
   Abstract
   Vines are significant components of rain forests, yet their role in succession has received little attention. Changes in vine communities on the Krakatau Islands, Indonesia, during the last 111 years provide an insight into colonizational patterns in a regenerating tropical rain forest. In surveys of Krakatau between 1979 and 1992, 71 species of plants that may be described as having a vining growth habit are identified out of a total of 306 spermatophytes (i.e., 23.2% of the flora). Most vines on Krakatau are hermaphrodite, approximately 24.6 percent are dioecious, and just 3.7 percent are monoecious. All the vines are insect-pollinated, but the proportion of wind-, animal- and sea-dispersed vines varies according to the recent history of the islands. Rakata, the least disturbed island in the group carries the greatest diversity of vines and the highest proportion of sea-dispersed species. As with many island biotas the vine flora of Krakatau is a disharmonic subset of the mainland (southeast Asian) pool and certain families, e.g., Annonaceae, Apocynaceae, Bignoniaceae, are relatively under- or unrepresented.
5. I. Thornton, S. Compton, Craig Wilson. 1996. The role of animals in the colonization of the Krakatau Islands by fig trees (Ficus species). Journal of biogeography 23:4 pp 577-592. The colonization of Anak Krakatau by Ficus species, agaonid wasps and volant frugivores over a critical decade (1982-92) is reviewed, including preliminary assessments of the effects of pollinator limitation on four pioneer fig species and indications of a possible effect of the presence of avian raptors, particularly the peregrine falcon, on fig colonization and forest diversification.
   Abstract
   Since the biologically extirpating eruption of Krakatau (Sunda Strait) in 1883, Rakata (Krakatau's remnant) and two closely adjacent islands, Sertung and Panjang, have been colonized by over 200 species of vascular plants. They now carry species-poor mixed tropical forest, including some twenty-three species of Ficus. Data on the sequence of colonization over the last century by twenty- four Ficus species, twenty-three species of volant frugivores, and by agaonid fig-wasps, presumably from the large islands of Java and Sumatra, each some 44 km distant, are summarized. The potential of the volant frugivores as dispersers of fig seeds is assessed, the pollination problems involved in the colonization of islands by figs are reviewed and patterns of colonization by fig species and by their bird and bat dispersers are identified and discussed. In 1930 a new island, Anak Krakatau, emerged from Krakatau's submerged caldera. This active volcano suffered a self-sterilizing eruption in 1952/1953 and has been colonized, under considerable constraint from its own volcanic activity, probably largely from the (selected) species pool present on Rakata, Sertung and Panjang, 2-4 km away. Its vegetation is at an earlier successional stage (grassland and Casuarina woodland) than that of the three older islands, and in 1992 the Casuarina woodland was in an early stage of transition to mixed forest. The colonization of Anak Krakatau by Ficus species, agaonid wasps and volant frugivores over a critical decade (1982-92) is reviewed, including preliminary assessments of the effects of pollinator limitation on four pioneer fig species and indications of a possible effect of the presence of avian raptors, particularly the peregrine falcon, on fig colonization and forest diversification.